Chapter No. 16 Researching and writing

 

Chapter No. 16

                                    Researching and writing

Beginning your research

At some point in your academic career, you will likely have to write a research paper.  Although the task can seem daunting, once you break the process down into smaller objectives it is really not so bad.  Here's a basic checklist to get you started:

First Steps

1.      Choose a topic (advice on choosing a topic)

2.      Begin preliminary reading - browse our collection of subject guides for links to relevant resources on your topic or review reference sources, like Encyclopedia Britannica for background information.

3.      Narrow your subject (by time frame, geography, population group, or discipline for example)

4.      Develop a preliminary thesis statement - Your thesis statement will usually be one or two sentences that states precisely what is to be answered, proven, or what you will inform your audience about your topic.

Gathering Information

1.      Begin extensive library research - review library guides on how to find books andfind articles

2.      Compile the working bibliography (a list of books and articles)

Taking Notes

1.      Develop a preliminary outline - Why and how to create an outline

2.      Critically evaluate information you find

3.      Take notes and avoid plagiarism

Writing the Paper

1.      Develop the final outline

2.      Prepare to write:
* put your notes in the order that your outline is in
* consider your readers and how their expectations may affect your tone and style

3.      Write the rough draft

4.      Check your documentation carefully

5.      Revise and rewrite - Does your paper clearly state and support your thesis? Are there unclear or confusing ideas or sentences?

6.      Make sure you use the citation style requested by your instructor

7.      Proofread

 

Types of research writing

 

1.      Argumentative papers,

2.      Analytical papers,

3.      Definition papers,

4.      Compare and contrast papers,

5.      Cause and effect papers,

6.      Reports, and

7.      Interpretive papers.

Argumentative papers

ARGUMENTATIVE PAPERS present two sides of a controversial issue in the one paper. A good argumentative paper will include in-text citations from researchers that present logical facts from both sides of an issue, and will conclude with the author analyzing the pros and cons of each argument. The confusing element of an argumentative paper is that the author is expected to favor one side more than the other on an issue, but the research and analysis must be un-emotive and factual and include both sides of the argument. For example a student may be asked to complete a paper on "The importance of nature and nurture on a child's predicted teenage behavior." The author may believe that either nature or nurture may be more important from their own research on the issue but a good paper on this topic will include information from researchers on both sides of the problem, and even in this case information from researchers that believe both sides are equally important.

Analytical papers

ANALYTICAL PAPERS also include information from a range of sources but the focus on this type of research paper is in analyzing the different viewpoints represented from a factual rather than opinionated standpoint. The author of an analytical paper may focus on the findings, methodology or conclusions of other researchers and will conclude such a paper with a summation of the findings and a suggested framework for further study on the issue.

Definition papers

DEFINITION PAPERS are relatively self-explanatory. They describe a topic from a factual standpoint that is usually devoid of emotion or the opinion of the author. Although the definition research paper will include facts from a variety of sources, this information is left unanalyzed and contains only actual facts found in another's research paper findings. While a definition paper might be considered difficult to write especially by those students who enjoy discussing issues from their own perspective a good definition paper can provide a valuable information framework for other argumentative or analytical reports on the same topic.

Compare and contrast papers

COMPARE AND CONTRAST PAPERS are often used in literature courses to compare two different authors, or stories from a particular genre. However they can also be required in social sciences to compare two different theoretical viewpoints; in philosophy to compare the thoughts of two philosophical frameworks and even in business studies where different leadership styles could be compared for example. The important part of acompare and contrast paper is that while both elements in the paper need to be described succinctly, the main part of the paper will be the comparison and contrasting examples provided by the author to support a thesis.

Cause and effect papers

CAUSE AND EFFECT PAPERS trace the probable or expected results from a particular action or policy in a logical progression that is easily followed by the reader. Used in business and education fields in particular a good cause and effect paper will not only outline the predicted results from the action/situation specified, but also where applicable show the range of results that could arise from this one situation through to its logical conclusion.

Reports

REPORTS often follow a memorandum or similar business format and they are often written to outline a case study situation. For example a report could be commissioned by your tutor to describe the key issues in a workplace scenario - perhaps from a human resources standpoint. The report would include a summary of the situation to date; an identification of the main issue or concern; a breakdown of the elements of this main issue and then recommendations on how to address the issue based on research on the topic. While a comparison essay for example will use "If…but" or similar statements, the report will contain short factual sentences devoid of emotion. Reports usually include an executive summary that takes the place of an abstract in this type of research paper, as well as supporting evidence in the form of appendix, graphs and tables.

Interpretive papers

INTERPRETIVE PAPERS are often required by tutors in literature, humanities and social sciences and they require the student to use the theoretical knowledge gained in a course of study to a particular case study example such as a piece of art or a poem in literary fields; a business situation in a management course; or a psychological case profile in either sociology or psychology fields. The key element of an interpretive paper is evidence that the student has written the paper based on an established theoretical framework and has used supporting data to back up the thesis statement and findings of the paper.

 

Developing research questions

What is a Research Question?

A research question guides and centers your research. It should be clear and focused, as well as synthesize multiple sources to present your unique argument. Even if your instructor has given you a specific assignment, the research question should ideally be something that you are interested in or care about. Be careful to avoid the “all-about” paper and questions that can be answered in a few factual statements.

Examples:

1.       For instance, the following question is too broad and does not define the segments of the analysis:

Why did the chicken cross the road?

(The question does not address which chicken or which road.)

2.      Similarly, the following question could be answered by a hypothetical Internet search:

How many chickens crossed Broad Street in Durham, NC, on February 6, 2014?

(Ostensibly, this question could be answered in one sentence and does not leave room for analysis. It could, however, become data for a larger argument.)

3.      A more precise question might be the following:

What are some of the environmental factors that occurred in Durham, NC between January and February 2014 that would cause chickens to cross Broad Street? (This question can lead to the author taking a stand on which factors are significant, and allows the writer to argue to what degree the results are beneficial or detrimental.)

How Do You Formulate A Good Research Question?

Choose a general topic of interest, and conduct preliminary research on this topic in current periodicals and journals to see what research has already been done. This will help determine what kinds of questions the topic generates.

Once you have conducted preliminary research, consider: Who is the audience? Is it an academic essay, or will it is read by a more general public? Once you have conducted preliminary research, start asking open-ended “How?” “What?” and Why?” questions. Then evaluate possible responses to those questions.

 

 

Examples:

Say, for instance, you want to focus on social networking sites. After reading current research, you want to examine to what degree social networking sites are harmful. The Writing Center at George Mason University provides the following examples and explanations:

Possible Question: Why are social networking sites harmful?

An evaluation of this question reveals that the question is unclear: it does not specify which social networking sites or state what harm is being caused. Moreover, this question takes as a given that this “harm” exists. A clearer question would be the following:

Revised Question: How are online users experiencing or addressing privacy issues on such social networking sites as Facebook and Twitter?

This version not only specifies the sites (Facebook and Twitter), but also the type of harm (privacy issues) and who is harmed (online users).

While a good research question allows the writer to take an arguable position, it DOES NOT leave room for ambiguity.

Checklist of Potential Research Questions in the Humanities

1) Is the research question something I/others care about? Is it arguable?

2) Is the research questioning a new spin on an old idea, or does it solve a problem?

3) Is it too broad or too narrow?

4) Is the research question researchable within the given time frame and location?

5) What information is needed?

 

Research Question in the Sciences and Social Sciences

While all research questions need to take a stand, there are additional requirements for research questions in the sciences and social sciences. That is, they need to have repeatable data. Unreliable data in the original research does not allow for a strong or arguable research question.

In addition, you need to consider what kind of problem you want to address. Is your research trying to accomplish one of these four goals?

1) Define or measure a specific fact or gather facts about a specific phenomenon.

2) Match facts and theory.

3) Evaluate and compare two theories, models, or hypotheses.

4) Prove that a certain method is more effective than other methods.

Moreover, the research question should address what the variables of the experiment are, their relationship and state something about the testing of those relationships.

Examples:

Possible research question: Are females smarter than males?

This question delineates the variables to be measured: gender and intelligence. Yet, it is unclear how they will be evaluated: What method will be used to define and measure intelligence?

Revised question: Do females age 18-35 score higher than adult males age 18-35 in exam.

This research question produces data that can be replicated. From there, the author can devise a question that takes a stand.

In essence, the research question that guides the sciences and social sciences should do the following three things:

1) Post a problem.

2) Shape the problem into a testable hypothesis.

3) Report the results of the tested hypothesis.

 

There are two types of data that can help shape research questions in the sciences and social sciences: quantitative and qualitative data.

While quantitative data focuses on the numerical measurement and analysis between variables, qualitative data examines the social processes that give rise to the relationships, interactions, and constraints of the inquiry.

Writing After the Research Question

The answer to your research question should be your thesis statement. Keep in mind that you will most likely continue to refine your thesis statement as you conduct and write about your research. A good research question, however, puts you well on your way to writing a strong research paper.

 

Developing preliminary thesis

 

A preliminary thesis statement is also known as a research statement or question, or a problem statement or question. It is a statement about your topic that drives your research, the direction of your paper, and demonstrates your knowledge about that topic.

When writing a research paper even before the research has begun, it is sometimes useful to come up with a "preliminary conclusion" or "preliminary thesis statement" in order to help you focus your research on a specific topic.  This preliminary thesis is not always exactly the same thesis statement that you may actually use in writing your research because you may find that your sources suggest a new and better conclusion.

 

Steps to prepare the preliminary thesis statement

Step 1: Getting it right

 

State your thesis statement correctly. A thesis statement conveys to the reader the points and/or arguments you wish to make in a paper. It serves as a road map by telling the reader the direction of your argument or analysis and how you will interpret the importance of the subject. In the most simple of terms, a thesis statement answers the question, "What is this paper about?" Additionally, a thesis statement,

It is an assertion, not a fact observation. Facts are used within the paper to support your thesis.

Takes a stand, meaning it announces your position towards a particular topic.

Is the main idea and explains what you intend to discuss.

Answers a specific question and explains how you plan to support your argument.

Is debatable? Someone should be able to argue an alternate position, or conversely, support your claims.

 Know where to place a thesis statement.

 Because of the role thesis statements play, they appear at the beginning of the paper, usually at the end of the first paragraph or somewhere in the introduction. Although most people look for the thesis at the end of the first paragraph, its location can depend on a number of factors such as how lengthy of an introduction you need before you can introduce your thesis or the length of your paper.

Limit a thesis statement to one or two sentences in length. Thesis statements are clear and to-the-point, which helps the reader identify the topic and direction of the paper, as well as your position towards the subject.

Step 2: Finding the perfect thesis

Pick a topic that interests you. This must be the first step in writing your paper and your thesis statement because all direction of the paper will depend on what topic you are writing about. Unfortunately, you must ignore this step if the topic is decided for you.

Explore your topic. The goal of this step is to find a particular narrow subject in your topic which you can make an argument about. For example, take the topic of computers. There are many aspects of computers that can be expanded on such as hardware, software, and programming. However, vague topics like these do not make good theses. But something narrower, such as the effects of Steve Jobs on the modern computer industry, allows for a much clearer focus.

Know the type, purpose, and audience of the paper. These are usually assigned by the instructor, but even if you get to choose them, you must understand that these will affect your thesis statement considerably. If you are writing a persuasive paper, your purpose will be to prove something to a specific group. If you are writing a descriptive paper, your purpose will be to describe something to a specific group. Each of these must be expressed in your thesis somehow.

Step 3: Writing it well

Keep your thesis statement narrow in scope. You should address a single issue in great detail so that your points can be fully supported in the body of the paper.^[4]Consider the following examples:

While both sides fought the Civil War over the issue of slavery, the North fought for moral reasons while the South fought to preserve its own institutions.

The primary problem of the American steel industry is the lack of funds to renovate outdated plants and equipment.

Start with a question. Regardless of how complicated the subject is, almost any thesis can be constructed by answering a question.^[2] For example, pretend you are given the task of writing a report to the school board explaining why computers would be beneficial in fourth grade classrooms. Simply turn the assignment into a question, such as "What are the benefits of using computers in a fourth grade classroom?"

Follow a rigid structure. Knowing the basic formulas will not only keep your thesis within the acceptable length but it will also help you see how your entire argument should be organized. Your thesis should contain two parts:

A clear topic or subject matter

A brief summary of what you will say

Another way of looking at a thesis is as a formula, or a pattern, that comfortably holds your ideas.

Write down your thesis.^[8] Writing down a preliminary thesis will get you on the right track and force you to think about it, develop your ideas further, and clarify the content of the paper. You will be able to think about your thesis logically, clearly, and concisely.

There are two schools of thought on thesis timing. Some people say you should not write the paper without a thesis in mind and written down, even if you have to alter it slightly by the end. The other school of thought says that you probably won't know where you're going until you get there, so don't write the thesis until you know what it should be. Do whatever seems best to you.

 

Step 4: Enhancing a thesis

 

Analyze your thesis statement once you think you have a final, or working, version. The point is to make sure you avoid making any mistakes that can weaken your thesis. To get a better idea of what to do and what to avoid, consider the following pointers:

Never frame your thesis as a question.

 The job of a thesis is to answer a question, not ask one.

A thesis is not a list. If you're trying to answer a specific question, too many variables will send your paper off-focus. Keep it concise and brief.

Never mention a new topic that you do not intend to discuss in the paper.

Do not write in the first person. Using sentences such as, "I will show...," is generally frowned upon by scholars.

Do not be combative. The point of your paper is to convince someone of your position, not turn them off, and the best way to achieve that is to make them want to listen to you. Express an open-minded tone, finding common ground between different views.

Realize that your thesis does not have to be absolute. Consider it a "working thesis" that's subject to change. As you write your paper you may find that your opinion changes or that your direction has veered slightly. So make sure to continuously re-read your thesis, comparing it to your paper and making the appropriate changes so the two match. Once your paper is finished, go back to your thesis and determine if it needs another revision.

 

Developing a timeline and a research file

A timeline:

Developing a proper timeline for your research proposal is essential for the process. Writing a research proposal might seem like a daunting and, at times, unending process. However, like any large project, breaking the task down into smaller, more manageable tasks makes the job easier and far less stressful. A timeline can help you plan these tasks. Once you have made basic preparations for your proposal, write your timeline.

Instructions

1.      Familiarize yourself with the requirements, rules, and procedures of the body or individual for whom you are writing the timeline. If you are writing the plan for yourself, then you set your own parameters; however, if you are writing your research proposal for a granting agency, professor, superior, or institution, then you'll need to be familiar with their requirements, including any relevant deadlines. Take these into account before preparing your timeline. Check if deadlines, requirements, and other formalities are negotiable or flexible.

2.      Determine the total amount of time that you will be carrying out and writing up your research, as well as any specific deadlines that you'll need to meet. This is important for determining the start point and end point of your timeline. Make realistic estimates, and, when in doubt, opt for a longer timeline rather than a shorter one if possible. It's usually better to propose a longer timeline and then come in early than it is to propose a shorter one and come in late.

3.      Determine how many phases, steps, or tasks your project will require, name them, and break them into sub-components, if applicable. Depending on your project, you may have several distinct sections, and these sections may include their own sub-sections. Determining the sections and breaking them into smaller components will allow you to develop a more precise and detailed idea of how much time you will require. It will also help you develop a better working plan, because time management is easier when you know exactly what you are required to do.

4.      Break your phases, steps, or tasks down into time increments appropriate for the length of the project. For instance, if your project involves only four phases and will take two years, break down the steps for your project into monthly increments; for instance, allow six months for research, six months for processing and sorting data, six months for writing the piece, and six months for edits and printing.

5.      Review your timeline as your project unfolds, and, if possible, amend it as required. A timeline is an estimate and plan for the unfolding of a project, but it's useful to keep an eye on it as you progress. Individual deadlines will vary in terms of flexibility, so your timeline management will also vary. Try not to rush just to meet your pre-set timeline if that will sacrifice the quality of your work. Adjust the timeline if necessary.

A research file

he Student Research File is composed of copies of what historians call primary sources-memoranda, letters, reports, speeches, notes, cables, and published material (newspaper and magazine articles and other printed items) that are either contemporaneous with the events they describe or which are based on personal memories of the events described. Primary source materials are usually (excepting retrospective primary sources such as memoirs and oral history interviews) records of personal and organizational activity that were created as the activity was occurring. They are the essential evidence for the day's events when the day itself is long gone and swallowed up into the past. They are always fragmentary in character, documenting individually only small pieces of past activity, and they are always challenging to use. They are the best things we have-together with evidence of material culture-to allow us to recover and understand the past.

The Student Research File is currently divided into 55 topics, which are listed below. Each topic is focused on an event or issue from Truman's life and presidency and contains between 500 and 1500 pages of documents selected from the Truman Library's collections by its archives staff. The selected documents do not represent all of the library's holdings on any topic, but the archives staff believes them to be the most interesting and informative documents on these topics. Students may carry their research beyond the Student Research File into the library's entire manuscript collection if they wish, and perhaps as well into the collections of other archival repositories and libraries.

Reading and note taking

Effective note taking should have a purpose, should be well organized, and can be a time saving skill. This information sheet outlines the basic lecture and written source note taking skills. Firstly, we will try to understand why notes are an important part of studying. Then we will learn how to take, organize and store notes. At the end of this information sheet you will find an activity that can be used to test yourself.

The following list provides a few reasons why note taking is an important activity:

Ø  Taking notes will help you to extend your attention span. When reading or listening, your mind may tend to wander off. You might be inclined to think about work, money, or relationships. It is quite easy for other aspects of your life to pop into your head while you are listening to a lecture or while you are reading. Taking notes helps keep you focused on your subject area and to the task at hand.

Ø  Taking notes will help you to remember what you have heard or read. We learn more effectively when we use multiple senses and multiple activities. When note -taking we are using listening and writing skills and we are using our brain and muscles. Also, by writing down notes, you are paraphrasing the lecture or reading material into your own words and into a format that you are more likely to understand when you review the notes. And as an adult learner you are more likely to remember what you have heard or read if you take an active part in your learning. Rather than being a passive listener or reader, note taking makes you an active learner. The notes you produce are your own work and are a visible reminder of the effort you have put into the course. This in itself can be a motivational factor for your study!

Ø  Note taking helps you to organize the ideas you are learning about. Good notes should arrange topics into easy-to -review chunks of information that are clear and well referenced. This is important if you’re using your notes to review for an examination or for as a starting point in an assignment.

It may be tempting not to take notes and to just sit back and listen to an interesting lecture or to become engrossed in an interesting reading. The disadvantage of these strategies is that at the end of the lecture or reading you may only have a vague recollection of the important and sometimes assessable issues. The lecture will be over with no chance to revisit the material, or the reading may have to be re-read, which is time consuming and sometimes tedious. The taking of effective notes during the lecture or while you are reading is an important academic activity that helps you to concentrate, stimulates your ability to recall, and helps you to be organized.

When writing down notes, try to distinguish between facts, opinions, and examples. It is important to write down relevant facts. Facts are ‘true’ statements that should be supported by research or evidence. It is also important to write down important, relevant, educated opinions. For example, if the lecturer is giving a lecture that compares the ideas of different theorists, it would be important to write down a summary of each theorist’s opinion in your notes. Lecturers and authors use examples to help explain difficult concepts and to maintain your interest. While you might find the example interesting, it is not important to write down all the examples. You may like to write a reference to an example that was particularly interesting or as a means of reminding you to do more research in a particular area. Rather than relying on the examples that the lecturer or author provides, when reviewing your notes, try to think of your own examples.

 

Understand what you are looking for in the reading. Are you looking to gain a general understanding or are you searching for specific information or support for an argument?

A well structured reading should begin by outlining the main premise, argument or ideas in the first few sentences, and certainly in the first paragraph. Pick out the main premise and write it down. Each paragraph after that should contain evidence that the author uses to support the main premise.

If you understand the premise, don’t read the examples given to support it. Never include examples in your notes. Only include the facts, avoid experiences and anecdotes where possible.

 

Summary

An effective executive summary should be written using language that the intended audience can understand and read independently from the report. It should briefly summarize every main section of the report and include references to the main document (i.e., appendices or page numbers) that direct readers if they require more detailed information.

The executive summary should begin with a concise summary of the conclusion reached within the report. The executive summary does not report any of the data, but briefly explains the methodology and results. References to the main document can be used to direct readers to data charts should they wish more information.

Summarize the purpose of the report, the problem addressed and the findings and recommendations in concise and plain language. Where technical language is necessary, be sure to include definitions and explanations.

After summarizing the entire report, end the executive summary with a short paragraph that explains any recommendations for action. This paragraph should provide a short analysis or justification for the proposed action in terms the audience will consider important (i.e., health, monetary, or ethical).

An executive summary should be less technical in terminology than the complete report and include all of the relevant findings and information from the report. While it can be a daunting task to reduce a lengthy report to a compact form, there are tips to help determine the best approach:

Use the report’s title and subheadings as a useful tool for organizing the summary and deciding what is most important.

• Look at the beginning and ending of paragraphs for key points. Scan for words that alert the reader to important elements, such as first, finally, therefore, and principal.

• Highlight key points within the body of the report that outline the purpose/central theme of the report.

• Prepare a bullet form outline of the summary. Then, edit the outline to eliminate secondary or minor points. Use your judgment as to what is important, but keep the summary concise.

• Write the executive summary in your own words, using a professional but plainspoken style.

 

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is a valuable skill because...

• It is better than quoting information from an undistinguished passage.
• It helps you control the temptation to quote too much.
• The mental process required for successful paraphrasing helps you to grasp the full meaning of the original.

6 Steps to Effective Paraphrasing

1. Reread the original passage until you understand its full meaning.
2. Set the original aside, and write your paraphrase on a note card.
3. Jot down a few words below your paraphrase to remind you later how you envision using this material. At the top of the note card, write a key word or phrase to indicate the subject of your paraphrase.
4. Check your rendition with the original to make sure that your version accurately expresses all the essential information in a new form.
5. Use quotation marks to identify any unique term or phraseology you have borrowed exactly from the source.
6. Record the source (including the page) on your note card so that you can credit it easily if you decide to incorporate the material into your paper.

Some examples to compare

The original passage:

Students frequently overuse direct quotation in taking notes, and as a result they overuse quotations in the final [research] paper. Probably only about 10% of your final manuscript should appear as directly quoted matter. Therefore, you should strive to limit the amount of exact transcribing of source materials while taking notes.

A legitimate paraphrase:

In research papers students often quote excessively, failing to keep quoted material down to a desirable level. Since the problem usually originates during note taking, it is essential to minimize the material recorded verbatim.

An acceptable summary:

Students should take just a few notes in direct quotation from sources to help minimize the amount of quoted material in a research paper (Lester 46-47).

A plagiarized version:

Students often use too many direct quotations when they take notes, resulting in too many of them in the final research paper. In fact, probably only about 10% of the final copy should consist of directly quoted material. So it is important to limit the amount of source material copied while taking notes.

Paraphrasing Exercise

Directions: On a separate piece of paper, write a paraphrase of each of the following passages. Try not to look back at the original passage.

1. "The Antarctic is the vast source of cold on our planet, just as the sun is the source of our heat, and it exerts tremendous control on our climate," [Jacques] Cousteau told the camera. "The cold ocean water around Antarctica flows north to mix with warmer water from the tropics, and its upwelling’s help to cool both the surface water and our atmosphere. Yet the fragility of this regulating system is now threatened by human activity." From "Captain Cousteau," Audubon (May 1990):17.

2. The twenties were the years when drinking were against the law, and the law was a bad joke because everyone knew of a local bar where liquor could be had. They were the years when organized crime ruled the cities, and the police seemed powerless to do anything against it. Classical music was forgotten while jazz spread throughout the land, and men like Bix Beiderbecke, Louis Armstrong, and Count Basie became the heroes of the young. The flapper was born in the twenties, and with her bobbed hair and short skirts, she symbolized, perhaps more than anyone or anything else, America's break with the past. From Kathleen Yancey, English 102 Supplemental Guides (1989): 25.

3. Of the more than 1000 bicycling deaths each year, three-fourths are caused by head injuries. Half of those killed are school-age children. One study concluded that wearing a bike helmet can reduce the risk of head injury by 85 percent. In an accident, a bike helmet absorbs the shock and cushions the head. From "Bike Helmets: Unused Lifesavers," Consumer Reports (May 1990): 348.

4. Matisse is the best painter ever at putting the viewer at the scene. He's the most realistic of all modern artists, if you admit the feel of the breeze as necessary to a landscape and the smell of oranges as essential to a still life. "The Casbah Gate" depicts the well-known gateway Bab el Aassa, which pierces the southern wall of the city near the sultan's palace. With scrubby coats of ivory, aqua, blue, and rose delicately fenced by the liveliest gray outline in art history, Matisse gets the essence of a Tangier afternoon, including the subtle presence of the bowaab, the sentry who sits and surveys those who pass through the gate. From Peter Plagens, "Bright Lights." Newsweek (26 March 1990): 50.

5. While the Sears Tower is arguably the greatest achievement in skyscraper engineering so far, it's unlikely that architects and engineers have abandoned the quest for the world's tallest building. The question is: Just how high can a building go? Structural engineer William LeMessurier has designed a skyscraper nearly one-half mile high, twice as tall as the Sears Tower. And architect Robert Sobel claims that existing technology could produce a 500-story building.

Paraphrasing Exercise: Possible Answers

Here are sample answers for the paraphrasing exercise:

1. According to Jacques Cousteau, the activity of people in Antarctica is jeopardizing a delicate natural mechanism that controls the earth's climate. He fears that human activity could interfere with the balance between the sun, the source of the earth's heat, and the important source of cold from Antarctic waters that flow north and cool the oceans and atmosphere ("Captain Cousteau" 17).

2. During the twenties lawlessness and social nonconformity prevailed. In cities organized crime flourished without police interference, and in spite of nationwide prohibition of liquor sales, anyone who wished to buy a drink knew where to get one. Musicians like Louis Armstrong become favorites, particularly among young people, as many turned away from highly respectable classical music to jazz. One of the best examples of the anti-traditional trend was the proliferation of young "flappers," women who rebelled against custom by cutting off their hair and shortening their skirts (Yancey 25).

3. The use of a helmet is the key to reducing bicycling fatalities, which are due to head injuries 75% of the time. By cushioning the head upon impact, a helmet can reduce accidental injury by as much as 85%, saving the lives of hundreds of victims annually, half of whom are school children ("Bike Helmets" 348).

4. Matisse paintings are remarkable in giving the viewer the distinct sensory impressions of one experiencing the scene first hand. For instance, "The Casbah Gate" takes one to the walled city of Tangier and the Bab el Aassa gateway near the Sultan's palace, where one can imagine standing on an afternoon, absorbing the splash of colors and the fine outlines. Even the sentry, the bowaab vaguely eyeing those who come and go through the gate, blends into the scene as though real (Plagens 50).

5. How much higher skyscrapers of the future will rise than the present world marvel, the Sears Tower, is unknown. However, the design of one twice as tall is already on the boards, and an architect, Robert Sobel, thinks we currently have sufficient know-how to build a skyscraper with over 500 stories.

Synthesizing

 Although at its most basic level a synthesis involves combining two or more summaries, synthesis writing is more difficult than it might at first appear because this combining must be done in a meaningful way and the final essay must generally be thesis-driven. In composition courses, “synthesis” commonly refers to writing about printed texts, drawing together particular themes or traits that you observe in those texts and organizing the material from each text according to those themes or traits. Sometimes you may be asked to synthesize your own ideas, theory, or research with those of the texts you have been assigned. In your other college classes you'll probably find yourself synthesizing information from graphs and tables, pieces of music, and art works as well. The key to any kind of synthesis is the same.

Here are some things you should try to do:

Ø  Once you've done your research, try to start by carefully formulating your thesis. Know what point you are trying to prove and then make sure the rest of your essay sticks to that point and supports it. This is probably good advice for any kind of essay, but especially important for this kind. Synthesized essays, like the Multiple Source and Researched essays, require that you draw on more source material than you might be used to. Having a well-formulated thesis will keep you and your readers from getting bogged down in competing facts and opinions.

Ø  Try to write complete sentences stating each of the supporting points you want to use to support your main point—or thesis. Then use these sentences as topic sentences for your paragraphs. This way each paragraph can proceed from the general supporting point of the topic sentence to specific facts, quotes, and paraphrases from your sources (material that gives authority to your own points). You can draw on points from your sources in order to expand, develop, support, and/ or illustrate your main ideas.

Ø  For specific facts, quotations, and paraphrases, always identify your sources. Introduce quotations by putting the name of the writer you drew the material from into your text whenever possible, preferably before the quoted material. If you are quoting someone, it's always a good idea to tell your reader why he or she should listen to that person. Tell your reader something about the quoted writer to establish him or her as an expert or an authority. Remember, for any borrowed material you use, you will need to be sure to provide citations in the text that will direct your audience to more complete information about your sources on the Works Cited page.

Writing the synthesis essay?

A synthesis essay should be organized so that others can understand the sources and evaluate your comprehension of them and their presentation of specific data, themes, etc. The following format works well:

The introduction (usually one paragraph)

1. Contains a one-sentence statement that sums up the focus of your synthesis.

2. Also introduces the texts to be synthesized:

(i) Gives the title of each source (following the citation guidelines of whatever style sheet you are using);

(ii) Provides the name of each author;

 

(ii) Sometimes also provides pertinent background information about the authors, about the texts to be summarized, or about the general topic from which the texts are drawn.

The body of a synthesis essay:

This should be organized by theme, point, similarity, or aspect of the topic. Your organization will be determined by the assignment or by the patterns you see in the material you are synthesizing. The organization is the most important part of a synthesis, so try out more than one format.

Be sure that each paragraph:

1. Begins with a sentence or phrase that informs readers of the topic of the paragraph;

2. Includes information from more than one source;

3. Clearly indicates which material comes from which source using lead in phrases and in-text citations. [Beware of plagiarism: Accidental plagiarism most often occurs when students are synthesizing sources and do not indicate where the synthesis ends and their own comments begin or vice verse.]

4. shows the similarities or differences between the different sources in ways that make the paper as informative as possible;

5. represents the texts fairly--even if that seems to weaken the paper! Look upon yourself as a synthesizing machine; you are simply repeating what the source says, in fewer words and in your own words. But the fact that you are using your own words does not mean that you are in anyway changing what the source says.

Conclusion

When you have finished your paper, write a conclusion reminding readers of the most significant themes you have found and the ways they connect to the overall topic. You may also want to suggest further research or comment on things that it was not possible for you to discuss in the paper. If you are writing a background synthesis, in some cases it may be appropriate for you to offer an interpretation of the material or take a position (thesis). Check this option with your instructor before you write the final draft of your paper.