Chapter 2: Discovering and Planning
Chapter 2: Discovering
and Planning
1.
Discovering Topics
2.
Generating Ideas
3.
Organizing Information
4. Planning in Digital Environments
Discovering Topics
English is a topic-centered language. In every
paragraph, or any longer text, the writer focuses on discussing a single main
topic. All the details provided are used to support his ideas about that topic.
In all good paragraphs you will therefore find three essential elements, i.e. a
topic, a main idea, and some details. In relation to this, your understanding
of a paragraph depends on your skill to determine the topic and main idea.
Topic
A topic is one thing the whole
paragraph is about. It is the unifying factor, which every sentence and idea
contained in the paragraph relate to. To find the topic of a paragraph, ask
yourself this question: “Which person, event, practice, theory, or idea is most
frequently mentioned or referred to in the paragraph?” Usually, the topic of a
paragraph can be expressed in one word or a phrase consisting of two or more
words. That’s why a topic could also be defined as the word or phrase that best
describes what all of the sentences in the paragraph are about. To illustrate,
let’s use the following paragraph.
Computer chips have changed our way of life.
With computer chips, we can make very small computers. Space scientists
use these small computers in satellites and space ships. Large companies use
these small computers for business. We can make very small calculators with computer
chips. Some calculators are as small as a credit card, and these
calculators are not very expensive. Computer chips are also used for
making digital watches. A normal watch has a spring and moving hands, but a
digital watch has no moving parts. A digital watch shows the time and date with
numbers, and some digital watches even have an alarm and a stopwatch. The computer
chip makes all of this possible.
Explanation:
The phrase “computer chips”, as indicated by the
underlining, is the most frequently mentioned thing in this paragraph. It is
the one that best describes what all of the sentences in the paragraph are
about. Thus, this is the topic of the paragraph.
Most paragraphs state the topic, but some writers
frequently imply the topic. Thus, to identify the topic, readers have to
synthesize, or combine; different words in the paragraph to be useful, the
topic you select or create should be general enough to include everything
discussed in the paragraph. At the same time, it should be specific enough to
exclude what isn’t. To illustrate, read the following paragraph.
Traffic is directed by color. Pilot instrument panels,
landing strips, road and water crossings are regulated by many colored lights
and signs. Factories use color to distinguish between thoroughfares and work
areas. Danger zones are painted in special colors. Lubrication points and
removable parts are accentuated by color. Pipers for transporting water, steam,
oil, chemicals, and compressed air, are designated by different colors.
Electrical wires and resistances are color-coded.
Explanation:
In this paragraph, the topic is not directly
stated. However, by considering the whole sentence, it is clear that the
paragraph discusses about the uses of color in modern technological instrument.
This is the topic of the paragraph.
Here is another example.
Frances Wright was a brilliant and determined woman
who believed that she could have changed an unjust world. Inspired by her
belief, Wright founded, in 1826, an experimental community called Nashoba. It
was to be a place where black men and women could work together until they were
able to purchase their freedom from slavery. But for all its good intentions,
the community was a failure. Plagued by bad weather and illness, Nashoba
produced nothing but debts. By 1830, it was only a memory, forgotten by
everyone but the people who helped start it.
Explanation:
Initially, as you begin reading this paragraph, you might think that
“Nashoba” is the topic. But as you continue reading, you discover that the
paragraph does not focus on the working of the community called Nashoba.
Instead it focuses on the community’s failure. However, the word failure does
not appear until the fourth sentence of the paragraph. In order to express the
precise topic of the paragraph, i.e. “failure of Nashoba“, you have to
construct it by combining words from different sentence.
Main Idea
A main idea is what the author
says, thinks, or wants to communicate about the topic. It is the central or
most important thought in the paragraph. Every other sentence and idea in the
paragraph is related to the main idea. The main idea is usually directly stated
by the writer in a sentence called the topic sentence which is usually but not
always placed in the beginning of the paragraph. The topic sentence tells what
the rest of the paragraph is about.
Since the main idea is what the author says,
thinks, or wants to communicate about the topic, to determine it, you should
first decide what the topic of the paragraph is. Then ask yourself these
questions: What is the main idea—what is the author trying to say about the
topic? Which sentence states the main idea? To illustrate, let’s take the
paragraph about “computer chips” above. The whole sentences in the paragraph
explained what the writer thinks about computer chips. He shows that computer
chips are used to make very small computers, calculators, and digital watches
which have changed our way of life. This idea is stated in the first sentence
which runs “Computer chips have changed our way of life.” This is the main idea
of the paragraph.
Occasionally, a writer does not directly state
the main idea of a given paragraph in a topic sentence. Instead, he or she
leaves it up to the reader to infer, or reason out, what the main idea of the
paragraph is. This type of paragraph contains only details or specifics which
relate to a given topic and which substantiate an unstated main idea. To read
this type of paragraph, start as you would for paragraphs with stated main
idea. Ask yourself the question for finding the topic: What is the one thing
the author is discussing throughout the paragraph? Then try to think of a
sentence about the topic that all the details included in the paragraph would support.
Read the paragraph in the example below. First,
identify the topic. Then study the details and think of a general statement
that all the details in the paragraph would support or prove.
Thomas Alva Edison invented or improved on the
telegraph, phonograph, stock ticker, microphone, telephone, light bulb,
battery, motion picture projector, and many other things. He held more than
1,300 US and foreign patents and was the first American director of a research
laboratory for inventors. His various companies later combined to become
General Electric.
Explanation:
In this paragraph the writer returns again and
again to Thomas Alva Edison. Therefore the topic this paragraph is “Thomas Alva
Edison”. Having been identifying this topic, it is not hard to figure out what
the author wants to say about it. The sentences in the paragraph combine to
suggest a main idea that would, if put into a sentence, read something like
this: “Thomas Alva Edison was a great inventor.” This is the main idea.
Generating Ideas
Before you can begin to write you have to have something to
write about. This step of the writing process is called generating ideas. The
activities in this module will help you with this step in your writing.
Pre-writing
task
Look at the following questions, think
about or discuss your answers with others if you are in a group:
·
What
are the advantages of the written word over the spoken word?
·
Give
examples of different types of writing you have done.
·
Why
should you consider your audience before starting to write?
·
What
steps did you go through before you began your writing task?
·
How do
you usually get ideas for writing?
·
What
are the advantages of writing down ideas before you start writing?
·
What
difficulties have you encountered in the past when writing in English?
Step 1: Brainstorming
The first step when writing an essay is to brainstorm. This
means putting down on paper all your ideas associated with the topic that you
want to write about. There are many ways to do this. How have you brainstormed
in the past? Here are examples of three of the most popular ways of formulating
ideas.
i.
Listing
This means that you make lists of similar ideas to form
paragraphs. For example, if you were asked to write about advertising you might
list the following:
a) Introduction and
definition of advertising
Examples of most common types of
adverts:TV, magazines, newspapers,buses, centres of towns, etc.
b) Arguments in support
of having advertisements.
(main idea)
·
Advertising creates markets, therefore goods are cheaper.
·
Purpose is to inform the public about the product.
·
Consumers are made aware of availability of product.
·
TV is free to viewers because of the revenue from advertising.
·
Small ads. are a service to the community as they provide information
about houses, jobs, births, deaths, etc. (supporting ideas)
c) Arguments against
having advertisements. (main
idea)
·
Advertisements are a form of brainwashing.
·
They create a demand for unnecessary things.
·
They adds to pollution by creating a "throw away"
society.
·
They preys on human emotions, i.e. fear, anxiety, love.
·
They are annoying and continually interrupt TV viewing. (supporting
ideas)
d) Discussion and Opinion
·
Advertisements have an important and beneficial role in society.
·
Cultural differences are shown through a country's a
In listing method, at the top of your list, write your
topic. Writing out your topic helps you focus on it. Then, list the ideas you
think of in the order that they come to you. You can use many lists to find
supporting points for each of your ideas. The lists below use the sample essay
topic above to show you what idea lists might look like. Here is another
example:
What is an important goal I have for
the next few years?
- finishing school
- getting a better
job
- keeping in touch
with my friends and family
- learning a new
language
How can I achieve my goal?
- to finish
school, I can figure out what my goals are for school, find a school that
fits my goals, and apply to schools and for financial aid
- to get a better
job, I can finish school, learn a new language, search for jobs, prepare
my applications, and make a list of people who will give me a good
reference
- to keep in touch
with my friends and family, I can make a list of everyone’s contact
information, like addresses, phone numbers, and email
- to learn a new
language, I can pick what language I want to learn, get a dictionary, and
find a class
To practice with this brainstorming
method, make your own idea list using the sample essay topic.
This means that you make a diagram with
the topic at the top and the other ideas under suitable headings leading from
it.
If you were asked to write about
different languages you might use a diagram.
To practice with this tree diagram
method, make your own idea tree diagram using the sample essay topic.
iii.
Idea
Map
Drawing a map of your ideas is helpful in many ways. Flow
chart is another term used for Idea Maps. First, people often find that seeing
a visual representation of their thoughts helps them to add more ideas and sort
through them. Also, drawing a map might help you see how your thoughts connect
to one another, which will help you when you begin organizing your essay.
In the center of the map, write your topic and draw a circle around it. When
you come up with a new idea, write it down, draw a circle around it, and draw a
line to show how it connects to the topic in the center and/or the other ideas
you’ve written down. Look at the main ideas you’ve written and see if you can
think of other ideas that connect to them. Remember that it is okay—actually, it
is great—if you have many ideas right now. You won’t necessarily use all of
them in your essay, but all it’s important to collect many ideas right now. The
map below uses the sample essay topic from the previous resource to show you
what an idea map might look like.
Here is another example. In this example we are goingto
write about your university.
To practice with this
brainstorming method, draw your own idea map using the sample essay topic.
During this activity also think about and discuss the following questions:
·
Have you used any
brainstorming methods before?
·
Think of the advantages
and/or disadvantages of using the suggested and / or alternative methods of
brainstorming.
Activity 1
Choose one of the topics:
·
FESTIVALS
·
MOBILE PHONES
·
STUDYING AT UNIVERSITY
Or you may choose a topic of your own. Say the first idea
which springs to mind. This can be done as a group activity by listing all the
ideas on the whiteboard. Keep writing ideas until you cannot think of any more
ideas on the subject.
Activity 2
Try brainstorming one of
the following topics. Write down as many ideas as possible connected with the
topic. You may use the listing, tree diagram, flow chart or any other method.
·
Transportation in Pakistan
·
Terrorism
·
AIDS
·
Pollution
If
you have a partner, look at his/her list of ideas from Activity 2. See if you
can suggest any more ideas for his/her topic and if she/he can suggest any more
ideas for your topic.
Generating
ideas in this way may seem awkward or even a waste of time at first. However,
writers have found that using some sort of brainstorming method allows them to
think of aspects of a topic they have overlooked or neglected and helps them to
decide what is important and what is not.
Organizing Information
For many kinds of reading, such as reading
textbooks or articles in your own field, in addition to the author’s topic and
main idea, you also need to recognize how he developed them. That way of idea
development is called the pattern of organization.
The link between clear, logical organization and
effective writing is powerful, both for the "reader" and the
"writer." For the writer, a well organized outline of information
serves as a blue print for action. It provides focus and direction as the
writer composes the document, which helps to ensure that the stated purpose is
fulfilled. For the reader, clear organization greatly enhances the ease with
which one can understand and remember the information being presented. People
seek out patterns to help make sense of information. When the reader is not
able to find a pattern that makes sense, chaos and confusion abound. Effective
writing, then, begins with a clearly organized set of ideas following a
logical, consistent pattern. Thus, one of the most important decisions a writer
makes concerns the pattern of organization that is used to structure and order
information.
There are many patterns a writer can use to organize his/her ideas. The
specific pattern (or combination of patterns) chosen depends upon the
particular topic and the objectives the writer has identified for the document.
There is no rule to follow in choosing a pattern of organization; one must
simply think carefully about which pattern makes the most sense in helping the
reader to better understand and remember the information. There are many
different ways of organizing the same information, and often two or more
different organizational patterns are combined to create a final outline of
information.
The most commonly used patterns of
organization. In some paragraph
information are presented in sequence of events, some others in sequence of
steps, in comparison and contrast, in cause and effects, in list of
characteristics, or in the mixture of two different paragraph types. Once you
recognize the pattern, you will understand and follow their ideas more
efficiently.
According to Mikulecky and
Jeffries (2007: 134), there are six major patterns of organization, i.e.
listing, sequence, comparison/contrast, cause/effect, problem/solution, and
extended definition. The following explanations are based on Mikulecky and
Jeffries’ work.
1. ListingPatterns
In the listing pattern, the writer states the main
idea in the form of a generalization and gives a list of details or examples to
support that general statement. Common key words/phrases found in the main idea
are: many, several, a number of, a variety of, a few, kinds of. Transitional
words/phrases used in this organizational pattern are: for
example, for instance, first, second, another, also, besides, in addition,
final, last, most important. Look at the following paragraph.
There are several different theories about the origin
of the Moon. One theory, called the fission’ theory, states that early in the
life of Earth, a piece broke off, and that piece became the Moon. A second,
closely related theory is that the Moon is composed of several pieces of Earth
that broke away from our planet. Yet another theory is that the Moon formed
elsewhere in the solar system and was captured by Earth’s gravity.’ The final
theory states that a huge piece of planetary rock struck Earth and broke up
into pieces. One of the pieces became the Moon. (From: Mikulecky, B. S. and
Jeffries, L. 2007: 135)
Explanation:
This paragraph discusses about “Theories about
the origin of the Moon”. This is the topic. In relation to the topic, writer
states, “There are several different theories about the
origin of the Moon.” This is the main idea. To make this idea
convincing, he lists four theories. That’s why the organizational pattern of
this paragraph is listing.
2. Chronological Patterns
A chronological pattern of organization arranges
information according to a progression of time, either forward or backward.
When a topic is best understood in terms of different segments of time, a
chronological format works well. For example, topics of an historical nature
are best organized using this pattern.
When using a chronological pattern, each main
section of information represents a particular period of time, and the
sub-points contained within each main section refer to significant events that
occurred within that time frame. A variation of this organizational pattern
involves dividing a topic into "past-present-future" or"
before-during-after" segments.
For example,
suppose a writer's stated purpose is to describe the historical development and
evolution of the city of Seattle. Assuming that Seattle is 100 years old, the
writer could organize the information by grouping it into four 25-year chunks.
In this case, the sub-points within each main section of time represent the
most significant events that occurred during that particular time frame. Notice
that by breaking the 100 year span into distinct 25 year chunks, the writer can
create an outline that follows the guidelines of outlining described under
"Principles of Organizing." This outline contains four mutually
exclusive and balanced sections of information.
3. Sequence Pattern
In the sequence pattern, the writer explains the
main idea with a series of events or steps in a process that
follow one after the other in time order. The common key word/phrases in the
main idea are: began, account, story, process, history,
sequence. The common signal words/phrases are: first,
second, then, next, after, while, since, then, soon, finally, at last, in 1965,
last June, later, over time, the next step, the following week.
Look at the following paragraph.
The years between 1918 and 1945 brought violence and
upheaval to the newly formed Polish nation. In 1918, Poland was declared
independent, and army officer Jozef Pilsudski took control of the government.
After 1926, the government became a dictatorship, first under Pilsudski and
later, after his death in 1935, under officers loyal to him. The officers,
however, did not rule for long. In 1939, Germany and Russia invaded Poland, and
both powers divided up the country. During the war years that followed, the
Germans murdered anywhere from three to five and a half million Polish Jews;
they killed more than half of the population of Warsaw, and the capital itself
was completely destroyed. Warsaw, once one of the most beautiful capitals n
Europe, was reduced to rubble.
Explanation:
This paragraph focuses on “political events in
Poland between the years 1918 and 1945,” and this is the topic of the
paragraph. In addition to the sequence of political dates and events, this
paragraph also expresses the writer’s idea that “Poland underwent violence and
upheaval during 1918-1945.” This is the main idea of the paragraph, which
is contained in the first sentence. So, this sentence functions as the topic
sentence.
The following paragraph also employs the sequence
organizational pattern. However, different from the paragraph above which uses
a series of events, the next paragraph uses a series of steps (process).
Not all stars are the same age, so it is possible to
see stars at every stage of their life cycle. From their observations,
astrophysicists can explain the process of the formation of a star. A star
begins life inside a nebula, a huge cloud of gas
and dust in outer space. Over time, the force of gravity pulls some of the gas
and dust together to form into clumps. Then the temperature inside the nebula
begins to rise. Next, several clumps come together and become denser and
hotter, and they form a protostar(an early form of a
star). After that, the protostar continues to grow until it has become about as
large as our Sun. At that point, nuclear reactions begin to occur in its core
(center), and these reactions send energy to the surface of the protostar.
Finally, the energy escapes as heat and light and a new star begins to shine.
Explanation:
This paragraph discusses about “The process of
the formation of a star”. This is the topic. According to the writer, “a star
is formed in a process during which clumps of gas and dust form a protostar
that becomes large and hot.” This is the main idea.
4. Comparison/Contrast Pattern
In the comparison/contrast pattern, the writer’s
main idea is a general statement about two things and how they are similar
and/or different. A comparison can include both similarities and differences,
or only the similarities. A contrast states only differences. The common key
words/phrases in the main idea: similarities, differences, both, in
common, same, different, compare, comparison. The usual signal
words/phrases for similarities are similarly, also, in the
same way, as, like, both, in common. The common signal
words/phrases for differences are: however, but, on the
other hand, although, while, in contrast, than, conversely, yet, unlike.
Look at the following paragraph.
When Gerald Ford, the thirty-eighth president of the
U.S., came to office, he was fond of emphasizing his resemblance to one of his
famous predecessors, Harry S. Truman. Like Ford, Truman had been a vice
president who became president only by chance. Truman took over when Franklin
Roosevelt died in office, a circumstance that resembled Ford’s own ascent to
the presidency when Richard Nixon resigned from office. Truman, like Ford, was
not an intellectual, and he tended to exaggerate his lack of learning,
insisting that he was just a simple man with simple tastes. Ford also like to
emphasize that both he and Truman came to office at a difficult time. Truman
led the nation during the final months of World War II, and Ford entered office
after the nation had been faced with the Watergate scandals.
Explanation:
This paragraph focuses on some similarities
between Ford and Truman. This is the topic of the paragraph. The main idea
appears in the first sentence: “Gerald Ford liked to point out how similar he
was to Harry Truman. The remaining supporting sentences develop that main idea
by listing the similarities between them.
Different from the paragraph above, which focuses on similarities, the
following paragraph focuses on differences.
Earth differs greatly from its two closest neighboring
planets, Venus and Mars. The Venusian and Martian atmospheres are composed
almost entirely of carbon dioxide, while Earth’s atmosphere contains very
little. The dominant material in our atmosphere is nitrogen (77 percent). The
other major component of Earth’s atmosphere is oxygen (21 percent), a gas that
is almost nonexistent on Venus and Mars. Our planet has an abundance’ of water,
which covers about 70 percent of Earth’s surface and supports life on our
planet. In contrast, Venus and Mars are extremely dry planets and incapable of
supporting life.
Explanation:
This paragraph focuses on some differences
between Earth and Venus and Mars. This is the
topic of the paragraph. The main idea appears in the first sentence: “The
Earth differs greatly from that of its two closest neighboring planets, Venus
and Mars. The remaining supporting sentences develop that main idea
by listing the differences among them.
5. Cause/Effect Pattern
In this pattern, the writer’s main idea is that
one event or action caused another event or action. Common key words/phrases in
the main idea and the signal words for details are the same and often include: causes,
leads to, is the cause of results in, creates, brings about, makes, provokes,
produces, gives rise to, contributes to, is due to, is the result of, comes
from, results from, is produced by, is a consequence of, follows, is caused by.
Look at the following paragraph.
There are more old people in the world today because
of an increase in medical services. Today, more people can get medical services
from doctors and nurses in hospitals and clinics. As a result, fewer people get
fatal disease such as yellow fever, malaria, cholera, and typhoid. This
decrease in fatal diseases causes a decrease in the number of people who die
from these diseases. Because of this decrease in number of deaths, people can
live longer today. As a result, there has been an increase in the number of old
people living in the world today.
Explanation:
The topic of this paragraph is the cause of
increase in the number of old people. According to the writer, there are more
old people in the world today because of an increase in medical services. This
is the main idea. To support his idea, the author shows how the increase in
medical services has caused the increase in the number of old people living in
the world today.
6. Problem/Solution Pattern
In this pattern, the main idea names a problem
and indicates that one or more solutions. The paragraph always consists of two
parts: 1) a statement and 2) a description and explanation of how it was
solved. There are often no signal words for the details. The common key
words/phrases in the main idea are situation, trouble,
crisis, dilemma or issue. The commonkey words in
the body of the paragraph include: solve, solution,
resolved. Look at the following paragraph.
Beginning in the 1600s, astronomers had realized that
their telescopes had serious limits. They had managed to build stronger and
better telescopes, but no matter how strong the new telescopes were, they were
less than satisfactory. The astronomers were able to view objects only when the
objects were in view of Earth. At the same time, however, Earth’s light and
atmosphere made it difficult to see many heavenly objects. Thanks to the Hubble
Telescope, this has been solved, because the Hubble is not just a telescope. It
is a digital camera on a satellite that travels about 370 miles (600 km) above
Earth, making a complete orbit every ninety-seven minutes. Since 1990, Hubble
has been able to take digital pictures of planets, galaxies, comets, and more,
and these are sent back to Hubble headquarters for scientists to study.
Explanation:
The topic of this paragraph is “the problem
caused by telescope limitation”. According to the writer, the new Hubble
telescope has solved the problem.” This is the main idea.
7. Extended Definition Pattern
In this pattern, the writer names a concept or
complicated process that the paragraph will define and explain. Usually, the
main idea or first sentence of the paragraph states a dictionary definition of
the concept or process, followed by a description and/or an explanation. There
are usually no signal words for the details. The common key words/phrases in
the main idea are: consists of, is, seems to be, are.
Look at the following sample paragraph.
A solar eclipse is an astronomical event during which
the Moon seems to cover the Sun. When the Moon passes between the Earth and the
Sun, all or part of the Sun’s light is blotted out. The Moon, in fact, is much
smaller than the Sun, but it is also a great deal closer to the Earth. As a
result, both the Sun and the Moon seem to be about the same size to us. During
a total eclipse, the Sun, the Moon, and the Earth are all in a straight line
and the Moon completely hides the Sun from view. A partial eclipse occurs when
the three bodies are not exactly in a straight line. In an annular solar
eclipse, the Sun is visible as a bright ring around the Moon because the Moon
is farthest from the Earth.
Explanation:
The topic of this paragraph is “Solar eclipse”,
whereas the main idea is the one stated in the first sentence, i.e. “A solar
eclipse is an astronomical event during which the Moon seems to cover the Sun.”
Exercises
Read the following paragraphs and determine the topic, the main idea,
and the organizational pattern employed in each of them.
Between 1890 and 1900,
millions of people from southern and eastern Europe left their home in search
of the American dream. The new immigrants had hoped to find a comfortable place
where they could settle and live out their lives. But the cities to which they
came were not prepared for the new arrivals, and many immigrant families ended
up in ugly tenements that were poorly supplied with light, heat and water. They
had dreamt of finding work, work that could make them independent, even rich.
Instead they found that jobs were scarce. Frequently they had to take jobs for
which they were unsuited, and the work left them exhausted and depressed. Many
immigrants found that instead of the warm welcome they expected, they were
treated as outsiders, with funny customs and even funnier way of speaking.
Human digestion begins when
we use our teeth to cut and grind food. As we chew, saliva moistens and softens
food so it can be easily swallowed. After being swallowed, the food passes into
a tube that connects the mouth and stomach; this tube is called esophagus.
After the food reaches the stomach, muscles in the stomach will mix it together
and combine it with a gastric juice that consists mostly of water and
hydrochloric acid. The gastric juice reduces the food to a liquid that can pass
into the small intestine. The passage takes about eight hours. During this
time, enzymes break down the food even more, preparing it for absorption into
the blood stream.
Liberty Statue is a colossal
statue in Liberty Island in the Upper New York Bay, U.S., made to commemorate
the friendship of the peoples of the United States and France. Standing 305
feet (93 meters) high including its pedestal, it represents a woman holding a
torch in her raised right hand and a tablet bearing the adoption date of the
Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776) in her left. The torch, which
measures 29 feet (8.8 meters) from the flame tip to the bottom of the handle,
is accessible via a 42-foot (12.8-metre) service ladder inside the arm (this
ascent was open to the public from 1886 to 1916). An elevator carries visitors
to the observation deck in the pedestal, which may also be reached by stairway,
and a spiral staircase leads to an observation platform in the figure’s crown.
The atmosphere of Earth acts
like any window in serving two very important functions: to let light in and to
permit us to look out and to guard Earth from dangerous or uncomfortable
things. A normal glazed window lets us keep our house warm by keeping out cold
air. In such a way, the Earth’s atmospheric window helps to keep our planet to
a comfortable temperature by holding back radiated heat and protecting us from
dangerous levels of ultraviolet light. Just like a window which prevents rain,
dirt, and unwelcome insects and animals from coming in, scientists have
discovered that space is full of a great many very dangerous things against
which our atmosphere guards us. (Adapted from: Brandon & Brandon, 2011:
289).
Astronauts face many problems in space caused by weightlessness. One of
these problems is floating around the cabin. To solve this problem, astronauts
wear shoes that are coated with a special adhesive. This adhesive sticks to the
floor of the cabin. Serving food is another problem. It won’t stay put on the
table! Experts solved this problem by putting food and drinks in pouches and
tubes. It only needs to be mixed with water. Weightlessness also causes
problems when an astronaut tries to work. The simple task of turning a wrench
or a doorknob can be difficult. Since there is no gravity to keep him down,
when he exerts a force in one direction, the opposite force may flip him over
completely. To solve this problem, he must be very careful about how much force
he uses to do these simple tasks. Here on earth, life is much simpler, thanks
to gravity. (From: http://e-writing.wikispaces.com/ Problem+and+Solution+Paragraph)
Planning in Digital Environments
A digital environment is a created world within a
computer, or a group of computers. What becomes interesting is that, unlike in
the real world, within this digital world you can record everything that
happens and this trace becomes your digital footprint. “Digital signage” is a
common term used to display text and/or
images, shown in digital formats over the internet or on television. Digital
signage is commonly used to advertise products or services as they can offer
more animations to entice consumers.
Writing and editing for digital environment
(online/web site) are not the same as for print. Online you need to
applydifferent skills and techniques to attract and retain your readers, get
your message acrosseffectively and achieve your business objectives.
Why is writing for the web different?
Reading from computer screens is about 25% slower
than reading from paper and usually say that they find reading online text
unpleasant. Studies have shown that people are less likely to read long pieces
of text on a web page than in printed format.
So, how do people
read websites? The answer is: they don’t.Instead, they:
·
skim,
scan, and select
·
browse
before exploration
·
take
quick glances and occasional very brief stops
·
read
a little at a time, mostly in short burst
·
grab
what they need and get on towards the goal
For these reasons, it
is rarely appropriate to cut and paste from a printed document to produce an
identical web version. Therefore you need to develop online contents in a
better, more structured and objective way. For this purpose you need:
·
Planning
of your web content: before you begin writing, you’ll need to plan out the
content you need and think about its purpose and objectives
·
Writing
of your web content: how to write specifically for a web audience
·
Measuring
of your web content: once you’ve published your content, you’ll want to make
sure it’s working for you in the way you’ve hoped
Preparing Web
Contents
Here are some useful
guidelines for planning your web content.
Generally speaking, your web
content is
useless
unless it
does
one
or both of the
following:
• supports a key business
objective (e .g
.promotes the
university; encourages students
to apply)
• supports a user in
completing a task
(e.g. provides the user
with
the
information they
were looking
for; helps a student
toapply)
So, how do
you
make sure that
all your content is
useful? Before you start
writing,you need to:
• prepare to create less content
• define your content
structure
Prepare to create
less content
Online ,when
it comes to informational, marketing
or promotional
content ,less
is always more because:
·
Less content is
easier to manage: When
we talk about publishing content
on line,
we often refer to it “going live”.
There
are countless
ways for web content
to die: dead
blogs,
outdated descriptions, broken
links,
and irrelevant
search
engines.
Its
something
to change brand
voice
in print
and forget
to do
it online; it’s another to neglect
content
that
might mislead users or
even expose us to legal action.
By publishing
less content you’ll have less content
to manage.
·
Less
content is more user-friendly: Users want information quickly.
If
they can’t
find
what they’re looking
for, they’ll feel
frustrated and
resentful ,and they’ll
leave. Too much
content means information
is harder to find. And that makes it
harder for
users
to complete
their task.
·
Less
content costs
less
to create:
By prior
it is useful
and relevant
content over “just in
case”
content, you’ll free up time
and money for things like planning and
measurement. Scale back on
content by
making sure
that
your
website
content maps back
to key business
objectives and
user
goals.
Define your
objectives
Creating
new
web pages
and filling
them with text and
images
is,
technically speaking, really
easy.
But,
just because you can, doesn’t mean
you
should.
Creating
useful,
usable content
requires
research,
strategic
planning, meaningful
metadata,
web writing
skills,
and editorial
oversight.
Done
well,
content can
build
your
brand, improve retention
and win loyalty.
Done poorly, it
will cause you to
lose
your
audience’s
attention
and trust.
Analyzing
your
objectives is the
first step in creating
web content. You must establish:
• What exactly do
you
need
to achieve? Do you simply want
to inform
your
users, or
do you want
to persuade,
reassure or motivate the motto?
• What outcome do
you
need? Do
you
just want your users
to
“be informed”,
or do
you
want them to
take a particular course of action?
For every new page you plan to
create, you
need
ask yourself:
• Why am I creating
this page?
• What do I want to
say?
• Does the user need
it?
• Will they
want to read it?
• What do
I want the user
to do
after
reading
it?
If you can’t answer these questions easily, you
need
to rethink
the objectives
of your content.
Writing your web
content
Here we will discuss how to write
clear,
concise,
web-friendly pages that users will find useful
and easy to read and
which can
be more easily retrieved by
search
engines.
The five
main
guidelines
for writing
for
the web are to make your content:
1. Concise: Text that
is poorly written
or long-winded will
deter
readers and
could create
a bad impression. Try
to write in plain
English
that
is accurate, consistent and concise.
2. Front-load your content: “Front-loading”
your content
means
putting the conclusion first, followed by
the
what, how, where,
when
and why. This allows users to:
• Quickly scan through
the
opening sentence
• Instantly understand
what the paragraph is
about
• decide if they want
to read
the
rest of the paragraph
or not
The opening paragraph
on every page
should focus
on answering
two questions:
• What? (What will
users
find
on this
page? What
is its function?)
• Why? (Why should
they care? What’s
in it
for them?)
Newspaper articles
are good
examples
of front-loaded
content; the
opening paragraph
is always the conclusion
of
the article.
Your primary information
(the main piece of
information or
message that you are trying to
convey to
your
user)
should be
the
first thing
the user
sees. Everything else is
secondary information
and should follow later.
Long and detailed background information can be relegated to the end of the
page or moved on to child pages. Similarly, information of interest to a
minority of users can be made available through a link without penalizing those
readers who don't want it.
Limit each page to one topic: Don’t make users click
through
unnecessary pages when they don’t
need
to.
If you genuinely
have
a lot of content that is
too long
o run
wieldy on
one
page, you should split it
up over several
pages in a way that makes sense.
New pages shouldn’t be
created
just to segment along linear
story
into multiple pages; having to
flick
through
several pages can
be confusing
to the reader,
slows
down reading
and makes printing
more difficult.
Good web content should be
split
into coherent chunks that
each focus
on a certain
topic. The guiding principle
should be to allow readers to select those topics they
care about and only read
those pages. Use
your
homepage or landing page to
summarize the main points and
put supporting
information onto secondary pages, avoiding repetition and
duplication
of content
on different
pages.
Don’t state
the
obvious but
do
explain: Phrases like “Welcome
to my
website”(when
the
user
has more than
likely searched for
or followed
a link
to that
website)or
“These pages have been designed
to make
your
first few weeks of work
with
the
University
easier”(on induction pages
aimed
at new staff) don’t
tell the user anything they didn’t
already know.
Similarly, it is not
necessary
to instruct
your
readers how to
navigate
a webpage such
as “click here for
further
details”, “on
this website you will find”or “the
links
on the left
will take you to
further
information”.
Many users will
arrive at your web
pages by
way of a search engine and
they may
enter the
site
at any point, by passing your homepage and
landing
pages
in the process. They probably
won’t
have
read all your content in
sequence,
so each page must be
self-explanatory.
Link to
background or
explanatory
information to
help users, but
don’t overdo it;
it’s
not necessary
to link to
all pages
in the same
section
if
this is already apparent
from the navigation,
for example.
Don’t repeat
what someone
else
has said
(better)
elsewhere: Keep your
pages short
and concise by linking out
to secondary
information rather than
reproducing
it on
your
pages. Linking
to the owner
of the information
means that
you
won’t
have
to keep
monitoring it
in order to keep
your
content up-to-date.
Scan able: Skimming instead of
reading
is a fact of the
web
and has been confirmed by
countless
usability
studies. Users are
often impatient
and don’t want to
read
long continuous blocks of
text. They
will scan text and
pick out keywords,
sentences, and paragraphs of interest while skipping over those parts of the
text
they care
less
about.
Structure your
content
with headings
&subheadings:
Edit long passages of text
into shorter
paragraphs and introduce helpful sub-headings to give users an accurate at-a-glance impression of the page’s
content.
If you’re
adapting a printed
document or
publication, these sub-headings
may
not have been present in
the original form but this
kind
of sign posting will be helpful to
a web audience trying to
find
information in
a hurry.
Structure your content using
two or
even
three levels of
headings (a general page heading
plus subheads
and sub-subheads
when
appropriate).
Nested headings also
allow better
access
for users with screen
readers.
Use lists: Break up long
lists
in sentence or
paragraph form and
present
them as bullet
points.
This will
make
them easier to read
and scan. Lists
are preferable
to long paragraphs
because
they:
• allow users to read
the
information vertically
rather than horizontally
• are easier to
scan
• are less intimidating
• are usually more concise
Personable: Stodgy (heavy) paragraphs written
in third
person are
no longer in
fashion. The
internet
has developed into
a more personal communication
tool. People use the internet to
explore in
a relaxed nature, not
to feel like they are reading from
an encyclopedia. We want
the website to
be somewhere people
come to
explore
without pressure.
Being
personal means
revealing
your
personality
to the visitor
in a fine way. This
doesn’t
mean putting
your
photo
on the “About
us” page; it
means writing web content that
conveys our
personality.
Use
you and
we: You should
refer
to the University or
your
School or
service
in full in the
first instance ,but you should refer to
“we”
or “us” in subsequent
sentences.
Active verbs: Adopt an active tone when writing; it sounds more direct and
professional and helps to build trust with users by reassuring them that we’re
taking ownership of what we’ve written.
Use descriptive
link text: In the same way that bold text stands
out to screen-scanning web users, so does link text. Link text such as “click
here” won’t make any sense out of context, so is useless to site visitors
scanning web pages. Instead, you should use a title that describes where the
person will be taken.
Searchable
Writing text with the intention of improving its chances of
retrieval by search engines is the single biggest difference between writing
for print and the web. There are a number of techniques you can use to improve
your pages’ ranking with search engines.
Title and headlines: Each page should
have a different title that is meaningful and accurately describes the
information on the page. Choose words that are repeated in the body text of the
page and place the most important keywords at the start of the title.
Headings & subheadings: Increased
weight is given to words in your text that are emphasized by being headings so
choose your headings carefully. However, do not use headings inappropriately or
too frequently. The objective is that your text should be readable as well as
retrievable.
Body text: Try to use the same terms
and phrases in your content as your readers use when they talk or write about
the subject matter in question. This will make your pages easier to understand
for the user and have a higher chance of being picked up in searches.
Hyperlinks: Hyperlinked text is given
added weight by search engine spiders so try to avoid the “click here”
convention referred to earlier. Always hyperlink the relevant words even if
that means you need to re-word your sentence to accommodate those keywords.
Keywords and page description: Think of the main keywords within your
page. Try to use the words a user would enter when searching. Avoid obscure
terms, oblique or ambiguous expressions, and puns. Keep it simple.
Include your most important keywords in your opening
sentence, repeating or using variants, if possible. However, do not write
something that is unclear or avoidably cumbersome. For Search Engine success
there is no substitute for relevant content.
Measuring your
webcontent
Now that you’ve planned out your content, written it and
published it to the website, the next step is to monitor it to make sure it’s
achieving the goals you set out in the first stage.Measuring your web content
is done in several ways:
Reviews & updates: Forthcoming events, latest news, statistics
and examples must be refreshed regularly. If users see out-of-date information
they will lose trust in the site and become suspicious of the rest of the
content.
Build it
into your workflow to regularly monitor your site for out of date content.
Remove anything that is redundant and update anything that is timely.
Check that
any new content added still makes sense and meets your objectives.
Analyzing web statistics: We use Google Analytics to monitor
visits to the website. The Web Team can generate regular reports for you and
offer advice on how to read the report and act on the results.Trytousethelanguageyouwoulduseif thereaderwassitting
across the deskfromyou.
References
http://www.time4writing.com/writing-resources/the-myths-and-realities-of-writing-well-and-great-writing/
http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/elsc/material/Writing/writing1.htm
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/engagement/2/2/53/
Ginny Redish, Letting go of the Words by
Kristina Halvorson, Content Strategy for the Web by
Myths of WritingIn:
Essays Into LiteracyExeter, NH: Heinemann Educational Books: 81-88
Brandon, Lee & Brandon. Kelly. 2011. Paragraphs
and Essays with Integrated Readings (11thed.). Boston:
Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Mikulecky, Beatrice S. and Jeffries, Linda. 2007.
Advanced reading power: extensive reading, vocabulary building,
comprehension skills, reading faster. New York: Pearson Education
Labels: Technical and Business Writing
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