SENTENCES – AN INTRODUCTION (1 of 2)

 

SENTENCES – AN INTRODUCTION (Part-1)

Section overview

·         What is a sentence?

·         Subject/verb agreement

·         More on clauses

·         Classification of sentences

·         Conditional and its types

 

This lecture contained a section that introduced the construction of sentences. Some of this material is reproduced here for convenience and is used as a foundation for providing more detail on the different types of sentence that you may need to write.

Definitions

Sentence: A set of words that is complete in itself (expresses a complete idea), conveying a statement, question, exclamation or command and typically containing a subject and predicate.

Predicate: The part of a sentence or clause containing a verb and stating something about the subject. A predicate may or may not include an object.

A sentence is a group of words containing a subject and predicate.

A single word could be a sentence. In cases like this the subject is not mentioned but understood to exist.

Example: Single word sentence

Leave! – This can be understood to mean “You leave”.

·         Hi. (Hi there.)
Wait. (Please wait.)
Begin. (You may begin.)

·         Stop. (You need to stop.)
Hurry. (Hurry up please.)
Catch. (Catch this.)
Here. (Here you go.)

In summary, a sentence always contains a verb, expresses a complete idea and makes sense standing alone.

Q. What do you mean by sentence? (old concept)

A sentence is a combination or collection of words that makes a complete sense. (Wren and Martin)

God is one.

·         Honesty is the best policy.

·         Cats steal

·         The trees fell.

A sentence must have a proper order of words and a clear meaning. (New concept)

There are some very easy basic rules in constructing sentences:

·         they always begin with a capital letter;

·         they always end with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark; and

·         they must contain at least one main clause.

 

·        Parts of a sentence

Q. What are the two parts of a sentence?

There are two parts in a simple sentence

·         Sentence

Subject or noun part                                    predicate or verb part

Subject or Noun Part	Predicate or Verb Part
God	Is one.
Honesty	Is the best policy.
The trees	Fell.

 

Q. Give the definition of subject.                      V. important

Subject or noun part: subject is the part of a sentence about which something is stated. Or A noun, pronoun or noun phrase (a group of words that perform the function of a noun). The subject either indicates what the sentence is about or who or what is performing an action.

·         Ashraf bought a car.

 

·        Subject word

What is subject word?

Noun or a word or a group of words that does the work of a noun is called the subject word. The noun phrase is often a noun modified by determiners and adjectives.

 

·        Words used as the subject

Q. How many kinds of words are used as a subject.

Ans;

Noun:

You may recall that a noun is a person, place, thing, or idea. A noun is a part of speech, which simply means that it's a type of word. 

Man is a social animal.

Pronoun:

We returned home in the evening.

An adjective used as a noun

The old should be respected.

To-infinitive

To write a letter is very difficult.

Gerund

Teaching is a noble profession.

Phrase:

A friend in need is a friend indeed.

Object

Q. Give the definition of object?

Object is the part of the verb on which some action has been done. A noun, pronoun or noun phrase (a group of words that perform the function of a noun). The object indicates who or what is receiving an action. The noun phrase is often a noun modified by determiners and adjectives. Ashraf bought a car from the car market.

Kinds of object

Q. How many kinds of objects exist in English language.

A simple sentence is a sentence that consists of a single clause. A clause, and therefore the sentence, may or may not have an object. A verb with an object is called a transitive verb whereas one without an object is called an intransitive verb. Many verbs may be either transitive or intransitive. Some verbs have an indirect object as well as a direct object. An indirect object names for whom or to whom an action is performed.

There are two types of objects, namely

(a)    Direct object

(b)     Indirect object

Examples –Direct object:

The thing is the direct object.

·         I gave a book to him.

·         She cooked dinner for her family.

·         I gave him a book.

Examples Indirect object:

 An indirect object is required with verbs like give, where we name the thing given (the direct object) and the person to whom it is given (the indirect object).

·         I gave a book to him.

·         She cooked dinner for her family.

·         I gave him a book.

 

·         Predicate

Q. What is predicate?

Predicate or Verb Part: the word or words which say something about the subject are called predicate.

Subject	Predicate
My father	Killed a snake.
Iron	Is hard
Ashraf	Is reading a book.

 

Usually the subject comes first and predicate in the end. But sometimes the predicate or part of predicate is placed before the subject.

Example           Hard                    were those days

                         Predicate             Subject

                          Sweets                 are the uses of adversity.

                         Predicate              subject

Enlargement of predicate: When the verb in the predicate is qualified by an adverb or some other words doing the work of an adverb, such a qualification is called the extension of predicate and appropriately answers to when, where, why, how.

·         He fought bravely. (how)

·         We went to school (where)

·         I met him at ten a.m. (when)

Enlargement of the subject:

A subject is often qualified by an Adjective or adjectival equivalent. Such a qualification is called Enlargement of the subject.

·         An old man died yesterday.

·         My elder brother went to America.

Subject	Enlargement of subject	Verb	Extension of predicate
Brother	My,elder	Went	To America

 

Complement

Q. What is complement

A word required to complete the meaning of an intransitive verb is called a complement. A word or phrase that takes the place of an object with certain verbs (for example, be, seems, tastes). A complement usually provides more information about the subject of the sentence. (There are also complements to the object but these are quite rare). A complement is usually an adjective or a noun.

The main verb of incomplete predication is been (is, are, am, was, were) seem, appear, look, become, grow, feel.

Words used as a complement

·         Noun: Sala is a teacher.

·         Adjective:  She looks attractive. The man was very tall.

·         Pronoun: The problem is this!           

·         Present participle: The book appears interesting.

·         To-infinitive: The train is to start.

·         Adverb: Water is everywhere.     My father is in the room. The meal was delicious.

Subject/verb agreement

The subject and verb in a sentence (clause) must agree in number. The basic idea is that singular subjects need singular verbs and plural subjects need plural verbs.

Example: Subject-verb agreement – simple example

·         There are three people coming to see me.

·         The books are in the library.

·         A flock of birds is flying overhead. (Even though there are many birds the subject is a single flock).

·         Each of you is responsible for completing your own work.

·         Some books are missing from the library.

·         Some knowledge is difficult to acquire.

·         Hamid and his family are (wrong) going on holiday. (“Hamid and his family” is the subject). Hamid, together with his family, is going on holiday. (“Hamid” is the subject).

Pronoun/antecedent agreement

A pronoun is used in place of a noun. A pronoun might refer back to a noun used earlier in a sentence. In such cases the noun referred to is known as the antecedent. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in terms of number. This is very similar to what has been covered above.

Kinds of Sentences

Q. How many sentences are found in English language?

There are five kinds of sentences in the English language.

1.       Affirmative or assertive

2.       Imperative sentences

3.       Interrogative sentence

4.       Optative sentences

5.       Exclamatory sentences

Sentences and their functions

Assertive	Interrogative	Imperative	Optative	Exclamatory
Statement	Question	Command & request	Desire, prayer	Emotions

 

Assertive or affirmative or declarative sentences

Q. Write a note on declarative or assertive sentences.

An assertive or declarative sentence is a statement of something, which may be described in a positive or negative manner.

·         I play cricket.

·         I do not paly cricket.

The structure of an assertive sentence.

In an assertive sentence, first comes subject, then verb and then object.

Subject	Verb	Object
We	Have bough	Books
He	Ate	Eggs
I	Did not paly	Hockey

 

Q. What is an imperative sentence?

AN imperative sentence contains some order or request.

·         Write a letter.

·         Do not stand here.

·         Switch on the light.

The structure of the imperative sentences:

In an imperative sentence, first of all comes verb (always the first form) then object and at the end, the extension of the object or predicate.

·         Open the door.

·         Do not park your car in the garden.

·         Read the Holy Quran every day.

Verb	Object	Extension of object
Open	The door
Do not park	Your care	In the garden
Read	The Holy Quran	Everyday.

 

·         Interrogative Sentences:

Q: What is an interrogative sentence?

 In an interrogative sentence, something is asked or requested about.

·         Are you happy?

·         Where do you live?

·         Were you reading a newspaper?

·         The structure of an interrogative sentence.

In an interrogative sentence, the first word of helping verb comes first, then subject and at the end comes object.

·         Have you plucked the flower?

·         Will you go to Lahore?

·         Can I read a book?

Helping verb	Subject	Verb	Object
Have	You	Plucked	The flower.
Will	You	Go	To Lahore.
Can	I	Read	A book.

 

·         Optative sentences

Q. Define an optative sentence.

AN optative sentence expresses some wish or prayer.

·         May you live long!

·         Would that you were rich!

The structure of an optative sentence

In an optative sentence, first of all, comes “may” or “would that” then subject and at the end verb.

May you succeed in the examination!

Would that I were the president of the country!

May or would that	Subject	Verb
May	You	Succeed!
Would that	I	Were the president of the country!

 

·         Exclamatory Sentences

Q. how will you define an exclamatory sentence?

An exclamatory sentence contains some strong feelings of mind, such as joy, pleasure, love, hate or anger etc.

·         Hurrah

·         Alas

·         How or what

Examples:

·         Hurrah! We have won the match.

·         Alas! We are ruined.

·         How lovely this house is!

The structure of an exclamatory sentence

An exclamatory sentence has two type of structure. Let us study them from the examples mentioned below:

1^st kind: Hurrah! we have won the match.

Alas! We have been ruined.

Exc. Word! Subject	Verb	Object
Hurrah! We	Have Won	The match.
Alas! We	Have been	Ruined

 

2^nd kind:

·         How well she sings!

·         How lovely the bird is!

·         How old she is!

To show astonishment we use How or what. After that word, we use adjective and subject and the verb.

Optative word	Adjective	subject	Verb
How	Well	She	Sings!
How	Lovely	The bird	Is!
How	Old	She	Is!

 

Description of different kinds of sentences in a nutshell

Kinds of Sentences	Affirmative	Negative
·         Assertive	He is a good player	He is not a good player
·         Interrogative	Does he play?	Does he not play?
·         Imperative	Play in the ground	Do not play in the ground
·         Optative	May you live long	Mat he not suffer in life.
·         Exclamatory	Hurrah, we have won the match	Alas, we have not succeeded in business.

 

Functions ·         Assertive sentences:	Sentences
·         Giving information or report	He said that Arshad was ill (information)
·         Describing	It was evening before we started.
·         Denying a fact.	No, I am all right.
·         Supposing or guessing	If he comes, he will be welcomed.
·         Comparing	He is as clever as a fox
·         Interrogative
·         Asking for information	What is the distance from Lahore to Pindi? (information)
·         Asking reason/ Enquiring	Why did you not go to school yesterday? (Reason)
·         Asking for permission	May I come in, sir?
·         Imperative
·         Ordering/commanding	Get out at once.
·         Requesting	Please give me a glass of water.
·         Warning	Be quiet, I will punish you.
·         Threatening	Get out, or I will break your arm.
·         Optative sentences
·         Wishing /desire	Wish you good luck.
·         Prayer	May you live long!
·         Expressing joy	Hurrah, we have won the match!
·         Expressing sorrow	Alas, we have lost the match!
·         Expressing wonder	What a beautiful building it is!
·         Expressing pity	Poor fellow, how unfortunate you are!

 

 

 

Sentences are made up of clauses. These are groups of words that express a single idea. There are two types of clauses. These are main clauses and subordinate clauses.

Definitions

·         Phrase: A group of words.

·         Clause: A group of words containing a verb, a subject and perhaps an object.

·         Main clause (also known as an independent clause): A group of words made up of

a subject and a predicate. The main clause can stand alone as a sentence.

·         Subordinate clause (also known as an independent clause): A clause that contains

extra information about the main clause.

The main clause can stand alone as a sentence whereas a subordinate clause would not do so in the context of the sentence.

 

Main clause	Subordinate clause
I want	To go to the cinema tonight.
I went to the graduation	That was held in July.

 

·         summary:

 the main clause must be finite but a subordinate clause might be finite or nonfinite, or a finite clause might be the main clause or a subordinate clause but a nonfinite clause can only be subordinate.

This all sounds a little complicated but in practical terms, it means that any sentence must contain at least one finite clause.